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Volume 16 Issue 2
2025
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An Analytical Study of the Indian Political System: Structure, Functioning, and Contemporary Challenges
| Author(s) | Bharat Kumar |
|---|---|
| Country | India |
| Abstract | The Indian political system is a complex and dynamic framework that has evolved through a blend of historical legacies, constitutional vision, and socio-political realities. As the largest democracy in the world, India’s political system encompasses a wide range of institutions, actors, and processes designed to uphold the values of democracy, secularism, and federalism. This research paper seeks to analyze the structure and functioning of the Indian political system while examining its contemporary challenges. Through a multidisciplinary approach combining constitutional analysis, empirical insights, and political theory, the paper explores how institutional structures such as the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary interact with political parties, electoral processes, and public opinion. It also critically evaluates issues like corruption, identity politics, weakening of federalism, and the crisis of accountability that challenge the democratic ethos of the country. 1. Introduction The Indian political system is a parliamentary form of democracy, modeled after the Westminster system of the United Kingdom, yet tailored to suit India’s vast and pluralistic socio-political realities. It reflects a unique fusion of traditional democratic ideals and modern constitutional principles, designed to govern a country of extraordinary diversity — encompassing over a billion people, hundreds of languages, and multifaceted cultural identities. While the British colonial legacy played a crucial role in shaping the administrative and institutional frameworks, the Indian system was indigenously crafted to reflect the aspirations of an independent nation committed to sovereignty, equality, and justice. At the heart of the political system lies the Constitution of India, adopted on 26th January 1950, which serves as the supreme law of the land. Drafted by the Constituent Assembly under the visionary leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the Constitution establishes the foundational principles of the Indian state: democracy, secularism, federalism, republicanism, and the rule of law. It also ensures the separation of powers among the three main branches — Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary — while laying out the rights and duties of citizens and the responsibilities of the state. Since independence, the Indian political system has undergone profound transformations, both structurally and functionally. In its early decades, India witnessed a phase of Congress Party dominance, where a single political force shaped the nation's trajectory. However, this gradually gave way to coalition politics, rise of regional parties, and issue-based alliances, reflecting the maturation of Indian democracy and the assertion of sub-national identities. The transition from centralized governance to increasing calls for decentralization and grassroots empowerment — through constitutional amendments like the 73rd and 74th — marked significant shifts in India’s political narrative. Another defining feature of the Indian political system has been its capacity to accommodate and resolve conflicts through democratic processes. Despite linguistic tensions, religious divides, caste-based mobilizations, and regional insurgencies, India has maintained a largely stable and continuous democratic order. Free and fair elections, a fiercely independent judiciary, and a vibrant civil society have contributed to this resilience. Yet, the system is not without its flaws and contradictions. The same democracy that has empowered the marginalized has also witnessed the criminalization of politics, erosion of institutional autonomy, and politicization of identities. Electoral malpractices, dynastic politics, and growing majoritarian tendencies have challenged the liberal foundations of the Republic. The balance of power between the center and the states, the efficacy of legislative institutions, and the role of media and civil society are under constant scrutiny. In this context, the purpose of this paper is to conduct an in-depth analytical study of the Indian political system, focusing on its structural design, institutional functioning, and contemporary challenges. Through a critical lens, the study seeks to understand how the constitutional vision has evolved in practice, how political institutions and actors have adapted (or failed to adapt) to changing societal needs, and what reforms are necessary to strengthen democratic governance. By examining both the achievements and limitations of India’s political framework, the paper aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of one of the world’s most dynamic and enduring democracies. 2. Structural Framework of the Indian Political System The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26th January 1950, is the longest written constitution in the world and forms the foundational legal and political framework for the country’s governance. It was drafted by the Constituent Assembly after intensive debates and deliberations, incorporating elements from various constitutions, including the British, American, Irish, Canadian, and Australian models, among others, while tailoring them to Indian conditions and aspirations. The Constitution proclaims India to be a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic. These defining terms reflect the collective commitment of the Indian people to a polity that is independent, inclusive, welfare-oriented, religiously neutral, participatory, and grounded in republicanism. The Constitution does not merely outline the structure of government but also provides a philosophical and ethical direction for the Indian state. It lays down several critical frameworks: • Fundamental Rights and Duties Part III of the Constitution guarantees Fundamental Rights to all citizens, including the right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, protection from exploitation, freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and the right to constitutional remedies. These rights are justiciable and can be enforced by the judiciary. In contrast, Fundamental Duties, enumerated in Article 51A (added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976), emphasize the responsibilities of citizens toward the nation. While not enforceable by law, they serve as moral obligations to uphold the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India, promote harmony, and preserve cultural heritage and the environment. • Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) Found in Part IV of the Constitution, the Directive Principles are non-justiciable guidelines aimed at establishing a welfare state. They reflect the socio-economic philosophy of the Constitution, urging the state to promote social justice, equitable distribution of wealth, environmental protection, and the provision of education and public health. Though not legally binding, they serve as a moral compass for legislative and policy-making efforts. • Division of Powers: Federalism India is characterized as a "Union of States", and the Constitution establishes a quasi-federal system where the Union is stronger than the states. The Seventh Schedule demarcates legislative powers between the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. While the central government is dominant in areas such as defense, foreign affairs, and currency, states retain powers over subjects like police, public health, and local government. However, the Concurrent List allows both the Centre and the States to legislate on matters such as education, forests, and marriage laws, with the central law prevailing in case of conflict. The presence of inter-governmental institutions such as the Inter-State Council, Finance Commission, and NITI Aayog are efforts to ensure cooperative federalism and policy coordination between levels of government. • Separation of Powers: Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary The Constitution envisages a separation of powers among the three principal organs: • The Legislature (Parliament and State Assemblies) makes laws and holds the Executive accountable. • The Executive (President, Prime Minister, Governors, and Councils of Ministers) implements the laws and manages day-to-day governance. • The Judiciary (Supreme Court, High Courts, and Subordinate Courts) interprets the laws, protects constitutional values, and ensures justice. This tripartite division ensures that no single organ accumulates unchecked power, thereby preserving democratic accountability. Though the separation is not absolute and India follows a parliamentary system where the Executive is part of the Legislature, the system incorporates checks and balances to prevent overreach. The doctrine of separation of powers is further reinforced through judicial review, parliamentary oversight mechanisms, and constitutional mandates that empower institutions to act as watchdogs of democracy. 3. Functioning of the Indian Political System The functioning of the Indian political system is shaped by its constitutional design and institutional structure. However, it is the operational dynamics — including elections, party behavior, coalition strategies, and civil engagement — that determine the health and efficacy of the democratic process. While the framework ensures representation and accountability, the real-world functioning of politics often reveals a more complex and nuanced picture. 3.1 Electoral System India adopts the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) electoral system, also known as the plurality system, for the elections to the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament) and State Legislative Assemblies. Under this system, the candidate who receives the most votes in a constituency is declared elected, regardless of whether they secure an absolute majority. The Election Commission of India (ECI), a constitutionally autonomous body, is entrusted with the responsibility of administering and supervising all elections to the Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice President. The ECI ensures the implementation of the Model Code of Conduct, monitors election spending, and has the authority to conduct re-polls, disqualify candidates, and supervise party recognition and symbols. While the FPTP system has enabled political stability, single-party majorities, and simplified vote counting, it is not without criticism. It often leads to: • Disproportionate representation, where a party winning a minority of the total vote share secures a majority of seats. • Exclusion of smaller parties, as regional or issue-based voices struggle to translate votes into legislative presence. • Encouragement of identity-based politics, where caste, religion, or regional affiliation often outweigh policy debates. Despite these limitations, the electoral system has largely functioned with credibility, witnessing regular power transitions, growing voter turnout, and the increasing participation of marginalized groups such as women, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes. 3.2 Political Parties Political parties are indispensable agents in a representative democracy, acting as intermediaries between the state and the citizens. India has a multi-party system, characterized by a wide spectrum of national, state, and registered unrecognized parties. Some of the major national parties include the Indian National Congress (INC), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Communist Party of India (Marxist), and Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP). Over time, political parties have evolved from ideologically grounded entities to electoral machines, focusing more on winnability than philosophical coherence. Several troubling trends have emerged: • Decline of Ideological Clarity: Parties increasingly adopt populist and opportunistic positions, frequently shifting alliances and policy stances. • Erosion of Intra-party Democracy: Most parties are dominated by centralized leadership or dynastic control, with little space for internal debate or dissent. • Money and Muscle Power: The growing influence of illicit funding, corporate donations, and criminal elements in politics has weakened the democratic spirit. Moreover, the lack of transparency in political financing, especially through mechanisms like Electoral Bonds, has raised concerns about corporate influence and policy capture. Despite these flaws, political parties continue to play a pivotal role in agenda-setting, representation, and policy formulation, and remain the primary vehicle for public mobilization and governance. 3.3 Coalition Politics The emergence of coalition politics in India, particularly since the 1990s, marked a fundamental transformation in the country's political landscape. With no single party often commanding an absolute majority, coalitions of multiple parties have become a frequent feature at both the central and state levels. The coalition era has witnessed several significant developments: • Rise of Regional Parties: Parties like the DMK, TMC, BJD, SP, and Shiv Sena have asserted themselves as indispensable players in forming governments and shaping national policy. • Consensus-building: Coalition politics has encouraged dialogue, negotiations, and accommodation of diverse regional and ideological interests. • Shared Governance: Ministries are often allocated among coalition partners, allowing for a more distributed exercise of power. However, coalition governments have also brought instability, with frequent breakdowns, vote trading, and policy paralysis. Short-term alliances based on electoral convenience rather than ideological alignment have often led to contradictory mandates, diluted governance, and weakened accountability. Despite its challenges, coalition politics has deepened federalism and diversified representation, offering space for a broader array of voices and interests in policymaking. 3.4 Role of Civil Society and Media The Indian political system has been significantly shaped and influenced by civil society and the media, which act as crucial pillars in a democratic setup. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Civil society in India comprises a wide range of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), grassroots movements, activists, and advocacy groups working in areas such as human rights, environmental justice, education, health, and governance. These groups have been instrumental in: • Mobilizing marginalized communities • Demanding policy changes • Exposing corruption and rights violations • Participating in legislative processes through consultations Notable civil society movements include the Right to Information (RTI) campaign, the India Against Corruption movement, and grassroots activism around land and forest rights. The RTI Act of 2005 stands as a landmark achievement of civil society advocacy. However, the space for civil society has come under pressure in recent years, with increased regulatory oversight, curbs on foreign funding, and allegations of selective targeting of dissenting voices. Media A free press is considered the fourth pillar of democracy, and the Indian media has played a vital role in shaping public opinion, investigating governmental abuse, and amplifying citizen concerns. With the proliferation of television channels, online portals, and social media platforms, the information landscape has diversified significantly. However, concerns have emerged over: • Media Polarization: Growing partisanship and ideological bias in news coverage. • Corporate and Political Influence: Media conglomerates often have ownership links with business houses and political parties. • Sensationalism over Substance: A trend toward “infotainment” and breaking news culture, sometimes at the cost of accuracy and depth. The rise of digital media and citizen journalism has democratized information dissemination, but also given rise to challenges such as fake news, disinformation, and online hate speech, which have significant implications for democratic dialogue. 4. Contemporary Challenges Facing the Indian Political System Despite the constitutional safeguards and institutional frameworks that uphold India’s democratic fabric, the political system today faces a range of complex and interrelated challenges that threaten its credibility, transparency, and inclusiveness. These challenges are not isolated events but systemic trends that undermine democratic governance and weaken public trust in institutions. Understanding these challenges is crucial for initiating meaningful reforms and ensuring that Indian democracy remains vibrant and resilient in the face of changing societal dynamics. 4.1 Criminalization of Politics One of the most alarming and persistent issues in the Indian political system is the criminalization of politics. According to data from the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR), a significant percentage of Members of Parliament and Members of Legislative Assemblies have criminal cases pending against them, many involving serious charges such as murder, attempt to murder, kidnapping, and corruption. Despite various Supreme Court judgments mandating the disclosure of criminal records and urging political parties to justify the selection of such candidates, compliance remains poor. The reluctance of political parties to deny tickets to candidates with criminal backgrounds stems from electoral winnability and the growing nexus between crime, money, and politics. The presence of criminal elements in legislatures undermines public faith, discourages ethical political participation, and erodes the legitimacy of the democratic process. Moreover, it leads to the subversion of governance, as elected representatives may use their office to escape prosecution or influence investigations. 4.2 Electoral Reforms While India has conducted regular, largely free and fair elections since independence, the electoral process is not immune to malpractices and manipulation. Key concerns include: • Paid News and Misinformation: The growing prevalence of sponsored content disguised as journalism distorts voter perception and damages media credibility. • Black Money in Elections: Despite expenditure limits, actual campaign spending often exceeds legal thresholds due to unaccounted cash transactions and illegal donations. • Opaque Political Funding: The Electoral Bonds Scheme, introduced to enhance transparency in donations, has instead been criticized for anonymity and lack of public scrutiny, allowing large corporate donors to influence policymaking without accountability. • EVM Trust Deficit: Though Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) have enhanced election efficiency, suspicions raised by political actors and civil society regarding tampering have eroded public confidence, despite ECI reassurances and the introduction of VVPATs. These problems call for a comprehensive overhaul of the electoral system to enhance transparency, accountability, and trust in democratic processes. 4.3 Erosion of Federalism India’s Constitution envisages a cooperative federal structure, where powers and responsibilities are distributed between the Union and the States. However, recent years have witnessed a trend of centralizing tendencies that threaten the autonomy and functional capacity of state governments. Concerns include: • Dominance of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS): These programs often impose central priorities without adequate consultation with states, limiting state governments' flexibility to address local needs. • Use of Article 356: The imposition of President’s Rule in opposition-ruled states, often under controversial circumstances, continues to be a flashpoint in Centre-State relations. • Partisan Use of Governors: The Governor, intended to be a neutral constitutional authority, is often perceived as acting on behalf of the central government, especially in state-level political crises or during government formation. Such developments threaten fiscal federalism, weaken local accountability, and undermine the spirit of cooperative governance that the Constitution seeks to uphold. 4.4 Identity and Communal Politics Caste, religion, and ethnicity have long influenced Indian politics, often serving as tools for political mobilization. However, in recent years, there has been a resurgence of identity-based politics that is increasingly polarizing and exclusionary. The instrumental use of religion and caste in campaigns, hate speech, communal rhetoric, and vote-bank politics dilutes substantive policy debates and developmental agendas. Social media has amplified these narratives, often contributing to sectarianism and majoritarianism. Rather than fostering inclusion, such politics reinforces divisions, weakens social cohesion, and undermines the secular and pluralistic ideals enshrined in the Constitution. Electoral strategies based on communal polarization have the dangerous potential of inciting violence, marginalizing minorities, and threatening democratic peace. 4.5 Weakening of Democratic Institutions A healthy democracy rests on the independence and effectiveness of its institutions. However, there is growing concern about the declining autonomy of key constitutional and statutory bodies in India. Affected institutions include: • Election Commission of India (ECI): Once a model of institutional integrity, recent allegations of partisan behavior and delayed action against electoral violations have dented its reputation. • Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG): While constitutionally mandated to audit government accounts, its findings are often ignored or politicized. • Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI): Often described as a “caged parrot,” the CBI has frequently come under fire for being used by the ruling government to target opposition leaders and shield its allies. These trends suggest a dangerous erosion of checks and balances, where institutions designed to regulate power are themselves under political pressure, leading to institutional fragility and democratic backsliding. 4.6 Legislative Dysfunction India’s Parliament and State Legislatures are essential arenas for deliberation, law-making, and holding the executive accountable. Yet, their functioning has significantly deteriorated: • Frequent Disruptions: Parliamentary sessions are often stalled due to protests, walkouts, and adjournments, leading to loss of valuable legislative time. • Declining Quality of Debates: Bills are passed with minimal discussion, often through voice votes or in sessions with low attendance. • Ordinance Route and Bypassing Committees: Increasing reliance on ordinances and reduced referrals to Parliamentary Standing Committees undermine the democratic process and deny lawmakers the opportunity for detailed scrutiny. Such legislative dysfunction threatens the core values of accountability and transparency, reducing Parliament to a symbolic institution rather than a deliberative body. 4.7 Citizen Disengagement and Populism Though voter turnout in elections has increased, meaningful civic engagement between electoral cycles remains low. The rise of populist leaders and majoritarian rhetoric has shifted the focus from inclusive governance to personality-driven politics, where emotion and charisma often overshadow policy and reason. This has led to: • Weakening of rational public discourse • Erosion of democratic dissent • Marginalization of minorities and dissenting voices • Apathy toward democratic institutions, especially among youth Populism, when unchecked by institutions or civic awareness, can lead to the concentration of power, undermining of the rule of law, and a gradual erosion of democratic culture. 5. Suggestions for Reform Addressing the challenges facing the Indian political system requires a comprehensive, sustained, and institutionalized set of reforms. These reforms must not only target structural deficiencies but also aim to revitalize the democratic ethos that forms the bedrock of the Indian Republic. The following suggestions are designed to enhance the credibility, efficiency, and inclusiveness of the political system while reinforcing constitutional values and public trust. 1. Strengthen Electoral Laws The credibility of any democratic system lies in the integrity of its electoral process. Therefore, electoral reforms must be prioritized to ensure free, fair, and transparent elections. • Decriminalization of Politics: Candidates with pending criminal cases, especially those involving serious charges (such as rape, murder, or corruption), should be barred from contesting elections unless acquitted by a court of law. Fast-track courts may be established to adjudicate such cases swiftly. • Political Funding Transparency: Full disclosure of donations received by political parties, including those via Electoral Bonds, should be made mandatory. Audited accounts should be published annually and scrutinized by the Election Commission and CAG. • Campaign Finance Reform: Strict enforcement of spending limits, monitoring of unaccounted cash use, and digital payment mechanisms can reduce the role of black money in elections. 2. Reinforce Federalism To realize the constitutional vision of cooperative federalism, balanced Centre-State relations must be restored and strengthened. • Promote Fiscal Federalism: State governments must be granted greater control over financial resources, including flexibility in implementing Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) to suit local needs. • Strengthen Inter-Governmental Institutions: Bodies like the Inter-State Council and Finance Commission should be empowered to mediate disputes and foster genuine federal dialogue. • Limit Partisan Use of Article 356 and Governors: Clear guidelines and judicial oversight should govern the imposition of President’s Rule and the discretionary powers of Governors to prevent misuse. 3. Ensure Institutional Independence The health of democracy is closely tied to the autonomy and accountability of its constitutional bodies and oversight institutions. • Independent Appointments: A transparent and bipartisan system should be adopted for appointing heads of key institutions like the Election Commission, CAG, CBI, and Lokpal. Parliamentary committees with representation from opposition parties should have a binding role in these appointments. • Fixed Tenures and Protected Service Conditions: Officeholders must have secure tenures, insulated from arbitrary transfers or dismissals to maintain institutional impartiality. • Performance Audits: Regular evaluation of institutional functioning by independent bodies can ensure accountability without compromising autonomy. 4. Parliamentary Reforms The Indian Parliament and state legislatures must be reinvigorated as genuine forums for debate, law-making, and executive oversight. • Stricter Attendance and Participation Norms: Legal provisions or ethical codes should enforce minimum attendance requirements and active participation of MPs/MLAs in legislative business. • Mandatory Discussion of Bills: All proposed legislation should be subject to public consultation, referral to Parliamentary Standing Committees, and adequate floor debate to ensure informed law-making. • Curbing Disruptions: A revised set of rules should limit indiscriminate disruptions, impose penalties on violators, and safeguard the dignity and productivity of legislative bodies. 5. Judicial Reforms An efficient and independent judiciary is vital for enforcing the Constitution and delivering justice to citizens. • Increase Judicial Capacity: The number of judges at all levels must be increased to address case backlogs, and infrastructure in lower courts must be upgraded. • Simplify Procedures: Legal processes should be made more accessible, affordable, and user-friendly, especially for marginalized sections. • Timely Disposal of Cases: Institutional reforms such as National Court Management Systems, judicial performance reviews, and technology integration (e-courts, online filings) can accelerate case disposal and reduce pendency. 6. Civic Education and Democratic Engagement For democracy to thrive, citizens must be informed, aware, and engaged participants in political processes beyond voting. • Integrate Civic Education in Curriculum: Schools and universities should include modules on Constitutional values, political systems, fundamental duties, and citizen participation. • Public Awareness Campaigns: Governments, NGOs, and media should collaborate to organize public outreach programs on voter rights, governance processes, and policy debates. • Youth Participation: Encourage the involvement of youth through mock parliaments, student politics, and platforms for expressing civic opinions, thereby nurturing future democratic leaders. These reforms, if implemented with political will and public support, can significantly improve the functioning of the Indian political system. They aim not merely at administrative efficiency but at strengthening democratic culture, restoring public trust, and ensuring justice, equality, and participation for all citizens. 6. Conclusion The Indian political system, with its vast institutional framework and constitutional backbone, stands as one of the most enduring democratic experiments in the modern world. Over the past seven decades, it has demonstrated a remarkable ability to absorb change, accommodate diversity, and resolve conflict through democratic means. From the smooth transitions of power to the survival of democratic institutions in the face of political instability, India has defied many predictions of failure and emerged as a global symbol of democratic resilience. Yet, this resilience cannot be taken for granted. The contemporary political landscape is marked by mounting challenges that, if left unaddressed, threaten to erode the foundations of democratic governance. The criminalization of politics, declining institutional autonomy, centralization of power, the rise of identity-based and populist politics, and the increasing disconnect between citizens and their representatives are signs of a democracy in distress. The vitality of democratic life depends not merely on holding periodic elections but on ensuring that every institution—legislative, executive, judicial, and civil—is transparent, accountable, inclusive, and responsive to the needs of the people. The functioning of the Indian political system must be assessed not only through constitutional ideals but through democratic outcomes—how fairly it distributes power, protects rights, delivers justice, and responds to citizens. While constitutional mechanisms provide the legal foundation, it is the quality of political will, civic consciousness, and institutional integrity that determine how well these mechanisms work in practice. Meaningful reform, therefore, requires non-partisan political consensus, civic engagement, and a revival of democratic ethics. Citizens must play a proactive role—not only as voters but as constant stakeholders in governance. Political leaders and institutions must transcend short-term gains to uphold the long-term interests of democracy. In conclusion, the Indian political system today stands at a crossroads. It must decide whether to allow the growing rot of populism, polarization, and institutional decay to weaken its democratic character, or to undertake the necessary introspection and reform that can restore public trust and constitutional fidelity. As the Preamble of the Constitution reminds us, “We, the People of India” are both the source and the stewards of this great democratic experiment. 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Chhibber, P., & Nooruddin, I. (2004). “Do Party Systems Count? The Number of Parties and Government Performance in the Indian States.” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 37, No. 2. Pages: 152–187. 13. Rajagopal, B. (2013). "India’s Democracy: Illiberal Tendencies, Resilient Institutions." Harvard International Review, Vol. 35, No. 3. Pages: 20–25. 14. Kumar, S. (2019). Crisis of Governance: State, Institutions and Politics in Contemporary India. New Delhi: Orient BlackSwan. Pages: 112–134, 179–205. |
| Keywords | . |
| Field | Arts |
| Published In | Volume 16, Issue 2, July-December 2025 |
| Published On | 2025-07-04 |
| Cite This | An Analytical Study of the Indian Political System: Structure, Functioning, and Contemporary Challenges - Bharat Kumar - IJAIDR Volume 16, Issue 2, July-December 2025. |
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